一　護国鈔三巻 - 翻刻

翻刻

【三十六頁上】
行名爲薩婆若者。《割書：新云。至於上｜忍。名一切智。》共觀第一義諦。斷三界心習
無明盡相爲金剛者。《割書：新云。勸勝義諦｜無明相是爲等覺》盡相無相爲薩婆若
超度世諦第一義諦之外爲第十一地薩云若覺非有非
無湛然清浄等者。《割書：新云。一相無相。平等無二。爲第十｜一。一切智地。非有非無。湛然清浄。》 金剛三昧
者。測云。金剛有＿二 二義＿一。一能斷智名＿二金剛＿一。能斷＿二諸煩惱＿一
故。二所斷惑名＿二金剛＿一。難＿レ斷似＿二金剛＿一。共觀第一義諦者。
液云。照＿レ理雖＿レ同。而品分＿二 上下＿一故共觀也。世諦眞諦照＿二此
不二＿一。假名＿二第三中道第一義諦＿一。故此中道是前雙照二
諦義無＿レ別也。爲＿レ揀＿二 二乘滅＿レ俗取＿一＿レ眞故非＿レ 中也。私云。若
準＿二 天台意＿一。般若有＿二 三敎＿一。此釋當＿二通義＿一。不＿レ順＿二別圓理＿一。心
習無明者。一卷云。前無生忍斷＿二 三界色心等集＿一。今指＿レ斷＿二
心集＿一耳。以＿二心細＿一故。測云。於＿二前位中＿一。已斷＿二色心二種麤
習＿一。今此位中亦斷＿二色心二種細習＿一。爲＿レ顯＿二所斷最微細＿一故。
但名＿二心習＿一。液云。即此習氣。亦曰＿二無明＿一。故合也。測加＿二 下
句＿一牒云＿二無明盡相＿一。私云。新云＿二無明相＿一。故測所＿レ牒文雖＿二 上
下＿一。義意似＿二盡相＿一。爲金剛盡相無相爲薩婆若者。此文不＿レ
明異解甚多。且出＿二 一兩＿一。一卷云。金剛惑斷盡。而智德猶

【三十六頁下】
是有相。故言＿二盡相爲金剛＿一。金剛後心非＿二但惑盡＿一。智德亦
同。眞相無相故云＿二盡相無相＿一。此欲＿レ明＿二佛不斷＿一。金剛與＿レ
惑相對。治猶是有相。佛體冥＿レ眞故受＿二無相之稱＿一。故下文
唯佛獨能見理。液云。無明滅盡之相為＿二法雲＿一。盡相亦去
名＿二佛果＿一。藏云。盡相者。能破＿二生死因果＿一究竟。盡相無相
者。非＿二但盡＿一＿レ相亦盡＿二無相＿一。所＿レ謂緣觀竝冥境智俱寂。測
出＿二 二解＿一。解云。無聞道時。惑相雖＿レ盡猶有＿二境智異相＿一。故不＿レ
言＿二無相＿一。於＿二此位中＿一盡＿二無明相＿一。亦無＿二境智異相＿一。故言＿二盡
相無相＿一。雖＿レ有＿二兩解＿一。且依＿二後釋＿一。私云。新本說＿二 下忍＿一云。斷
無明相。說＿二 上忍＿一云。一切無相。故知盡相是金剛心。正斷＿二
最後品惑相＿一也。爾時惑智敵對未＿レ與＿二無相之名＿一。盡相無
相即是佛位。盡＿二諸相＿一已唯無相也。下受持品唯以＿二佛果＿一
爲＿二見理位＿一。意在＿二於此＿一。超度世諦至＿二衆生本業＿一。液云。。別辨＿二
佛果三身＿一。文即爲＿レ 三。初報身。次湛然下法身。後無緣下
應身。私云。此辨＿二 三身＿一。其理可＿レ然。但建＿二立三身＿一諸經不＿レ
同。此經名爲＿二化法身＿一。與＿二法報應＿一名義少異。學者可＿レ知。
超度等者。藏云。證＿二 中道一實諦＿一故名＿レ出＿二 二諦之外＿一。十地

【三十七頁上】
是學果。佛十一地是無學果。絕＿レ相非＿レ有。備＿レ德非＿レ無。測
云。度＿二 三賢＿一故超＿二世諦＿一。度＿二 十地＿一故超＿二第一義諦＿一。超＿二世諦＿一
故非＿レ有。超＿二第一義諦＿一故非＿レ無。液云。所斷為＿二世諦＿一。所修
為＿二第一義諦＿一。證斷不二為＿レ超。又權智照＿レ有為＿二世諦＿一。實智
照＿レ眞為＿二第一義諦＿一。二照不二為＿レ超。又化他為＿二世諦＿一。自利
第一諦。極照＿二自他不二＿一為＿レ超。但覺非＿レ有非＿レ無也。私云。
若依＿二 天台＿一。應＿下約＿二 三敎及被接＿一以消＿中此文＿上。然今一往準＿二
新本＿一云。等覺猶有＿二無明相＿一故可＿二名為＿一＿レ有。即斷＿レ彼故可＿二
名為＿一＿レ無。故以＿二因位＿一屬＿二 二邊＿一也。佛果斷已非＿レ有非＿レ無。無
明即明。一相平等為＿二超二＿一也。藏意同＿レ之。故釋＿二 上斷三
界心習文＿一云。觀＿二空諦＿一究竟無礙道中斷＿二心智無明＿一 盡。
《割書：云云》此釋善。薩云若覺等者。測牒＿レ經云。薩云若覺。液以＿二
覺字＿一冠＿二非有非無＿一。《割書：可＿レ思》。薩云若覺者。測云。自有＿二兩說＿一。一
云。薩婆若名＿二 一切智＿一。薩云若名＿二 一切種智＿一。若依＿二本記＿一皆
翻＿二 一切智＿一。液釋＿二 下文＿一 中云。薩云若此云＿二 一切種智＿一。觀
此文勢＿一。似＿下薩云若辨＿二本覺性＿一薩婆若辨＿中始覺修成智＿上。然
未＿レ見＿二正翻釋＿一也。無緣下液云。此中文曰一標＿二化體＿一。《割書：悲智》

【三十七頁下】
二善男子下明＿二化境＿一。三諸佛應化下明＿二能化＿一。四揀＿二邪正＿一。
是故我言下示＿レ邪。大王我常下述＿レ正。一切衆生煩惱不
出三界藏。一切衆生果二十二根不出三界者《割書：新云。諸衆｜生類。一切煩》
《割書：惱。業異熟果。廿｜ 二根。不出三界。》一卷云。此經未＿レ說＿二 三界外事＿一。猶是覆相之
說。又云。論云＿三 三界外有＿二變易生死＿一者。此論＿レ不＿レ繫＿二 三有＿一。
故名爲＿レ外。若論＿二處所＿一。不＿レ出＿二 三界之域＿一。藏云。三界有＿二 二
種＿一。一分段。二變易。測出＿二異解＿一 中云。慈恩三藏作＿二如＿レ是
釋＿一。變易生死無＿二別業果＿一。即依＿二 三界所有業果＿一。由＿二邊際
定。轉勝轉玅＿一。故名＿二變易＿一。液云。惑有＿二麤細＿一報有＿二淨穢＿一。豈
三界外別有＿二淨土＿一耶。私云。異解如＿レ此。不＿レ順＿二經意＿一。具如＿下
下引＿二起信論＿一說＿上。諸佛應化法身亦不出三界者。《割書：新云。諸佛｜示導。應化》
《割書：法身。亦｜不離此。》蔵云。謂＿二所化衆生＿一故言＿二不出三界＿一。若《割書：■【国構えに考】若下疏｜有擧字》實而
言三界本來清淨。何出不出。測云。佛三身雖＿レ非＿二 三界＿一亦
在＿二 三界＿一。故言＿二不出＿一。液云。良醫不＿レ處＿二不患之鄕＿一。不＿レ治＿二必
死之病＿一之病所《割書：■【国構えに考】之病所上｜恐有脱字》故不＿レ出＿二 三界＿一可＿二解脫＿一故。而
爲＿二說法＿一故。應化佛常處＿二 三界＿一。《割書：私云。三師｜釋俱未＿レ明》外道大有經者。
測云。吠世史迦外道。大有經中說。彼說＿二 六句義＿一。一實二

現代語訳

【三十六頁上】
行ずるを名づけて薩婆若と為すとは、（新訳では上忍に至って、名づけて一切智と為すと云う）。共に第一義諦を観じ、三界心習無明を断じ尽くし、相を金剛と為し、尽相無相を薩婆若と為し、世諦・第一義諦を超度してその外を第十一地薩云若覚と為す。非有非無にして湛然清浄等とは、（新訳では一相無相、平等無二を第十一一切智地と為す。非有非無、湛然清浄と云う）。金剛三昧とは、測師は云う「金剛に二義あり。一は能断の智を金剛と名づける。よく諸煩悩を断ずるが故に。二は所断の惑を金剛と名づける。断じ難きこと金剛に似るが故に」と。第一義諦を共観するとは、液師は云う「理を照らすこと同じといえども、品に上下を分かつ故に共観なり。世諦・真諦、この不二を照らし、仮に第三中道第一義諦と名づける。故にこの中道は前の二諦を双照する義と別なし。二乗が俗を滅し真を取るのを簡別するが故に中に非ざるなり」と。私は云う「もし天台の意に準ずれば、般若に三教あり。この釈は通義に当たり、別円の理に順わず」と。心習無明とは、一巻では云う「前の無生忍は三界色心等集を断ず。今心集を断ずることを指すのみ。心が細なるを以ての故に」と。測師は云う「前位の中において、已に色心二種の麁習を断じ、今この位中においてもまた色心二種の細習を断ず。所断が最も微細なることを顕すが故に、ただ心習と名づける」と。液師は云う「即ちこの習気をまた無明と曰う。故に合するなり」と。測師は下句を加えて「無明尽相」と牒して云う。私は云う「新訳では無明相と云う。故に測師の牒する文は上下あれども、義意は尽相に似たり」と。金剛と為し尽相無相を薩婆若と為すとは、この文明らかならず異解甚だ多し。且く一両を出す。一巻では云う「金剛の惑断じ尽きて、而も智徳なお

【三十六頁下】
これ有相なり。故に尽相を金剛と為すと言う。金剛の後心は但だ惑尽くるのみに非ず。智徳もまた同じく、真相無相なる故に尽相無相と云う。これは仏は断ぜざることを明かさんと欲す。金剛は惑と相対し、治はなお是れ有相なり。仏体は真に冥ずる故に無相の称を受く。故に下文に唯だ仏のみ独り能く理を見るとあり」と。液師は云う「無明滅尽の相を法雲と為し、尽相もまた去って仏果と名づく」と。蔵師は云う「尽相とは、よく生死の因果を破ること究竟なり。尽相無相とは、但だ相を尽くすのみに非ずして、また無相をも尽くす。謂わく縁観並びに冥じ境智俱に寂するなり」と。測師は二解を出す。解して云う「無間道の時、惑相尽くといえどもなお境智異相あり。故に無相と言わず。この位中において無明相を尽くし、また境智異相なし。故に尽相無相と言う。二解ありといえども、且く後釈に依る」と。私は云う「新本は下忍を説いて無明相を断ずと云い、上忍を説いて一切無相と云う。故に知んぬ、尽相は是れ金剛心にして、正しく最後品惑相を断ずるなり。その時惑智敵対してまだ無相の名を与えず。尽相無相は即ち是れ仏位なり。諸相を尽くし已って唯だ無相のみなり。下の受持品に唯だ仏果を以て見理位と為す。意この中に在り」と。世諦を超度するより衆生本業に至るまで、液師は云う「別に仏果三身を弁ず。文即ち三と為す。初めは報身、次の湛然以下は法身、後の無縁以下は応身」と。私は云う「これ三身を弁ずること、その理然るべし。ただし三身を建立すること、諸経同じからず。この経は化法身と名づけ、法報応と名義少し異なり。学者知るべし」と。超度等とは、蔵師は云う「中道一実諦を証する故に二諦の外に出ると名づく。十地

【三十七頁上】
は是れ学果なり。仏の十一地は是れ無学果なり。相を絶して有に非ず。徳を備えて無に非ず」と。測師は云う「三賢を度する故に世諦を超え、十地を度する故に第一義諦を超ゆ。世諦を超ゆる故に非有、第一義諦を超ゆる故に非無」と。液師は云う「所断を世諦と為し、所修を第一義諦と為す。証断不二を超と為す。また権智の有を照らすを世諦と為し、実智の真を照らすを第一義諦と為す。二照不二を超と為す。また化他を世諦と為し、自利を第一義諦と為す。極めて自他不二を照らすを超と為す。ただ覚は非有非無なり」と。私は云う「もし天台に依らば、応に三教及び被接について、以てこの文を消すべし。然るに今一往新本に準じて云う。等覚はなお無明相あり故に名づけて有と為すべし。即ち彼を断ずる故に名づけて無と為すべし。故に因位を以て二辺に属するなり。仏果は断じ已って非有非無。無明即ち明、一相平等を二を超ゆると為すなり」と。蔵師の意これに同じ。故に上の三界心習を断ずる文を釈して「空諦を観じ究竟無礙道中において心智無明を断じ尽くす」と云う。この釈善し。薩云若覚等とは、測師は経を牒して薩云若覚と云う。液師は覚字を以て非有非無に冠す（思うべし）。薩云若覚とは、測師は云う「自ら両説あり。一に云う、薩婆若を一切智と名づけ、薩云若を一切種智と名づく。もし本記に依らば皆一切智と翻ず」と。液師は下文中を釈して「薩云若はここに一切種智と云う」と。この文勢を観ずるに、薩云若は本覚性を弁じ、薩婆若は始覚修成智を弁ずるに似たり。然れどもまだ正翻釈を見ず。無縁以下、液師は云う「この中の文に一つあり、化体を標す」。

【三十七頁下】
二に善男子以下は化境を明かす。三に諸仏応化以下は能化を明かす。四に邪正を簡す。是故我言以下は邪を示し、大王我常以下は正を述ぶ。一切衆生煩悩不出三界蔵、一切衆生果二十二根不出三界とは（新訳では諸衆生類、一切煩悩、業異熟果、二十二根、三界を出でずと云う）。一巻では云う「この経はまだ三界外事を説かず。なお是れ覆相の説なり。また云う、論に三界外に変易生死ありと云うは、この論三有に繋せず。故に名づけて外と為す。もし処所を論ずれば、三界の域を出でず」と。蔵師は云う「三界に二種あり。一は分段、二は変易」と。測師は異解を出す中に云う「慈恩三蔵は是の如き釈を作す。変易生死は別業果なし。即ち三界所有の業果に依り、辺際定により転た勝転た妙なり。故に変易と名づく」と。液師は云う「惑に麁細あり、報に浄穢あり。豈に三界外に別に浄土ありや」と。私は云う「異解此の如し。経意に順わず。具に下に起信論を引いて説くが如し」と。諸仏応化法身亦不出三界とは（新訳では諸仏示導、応化法身、またこれを離れずと云う）。蔵師は云う「所化の衆生を謂う故に三界を出でずと言う。もし実にして言わば三界本来清浄なり。何ぞ出不出あらん」と。測師は云う「仏の三身は三界に非ずといえども、また三界に在り。故に出でずと言う」と。液師は云う「良医は患いなき郷に処せず。必死の病を治せず。病所故に三界を出でず、解脱すべき故に、而も為に説法する故に。応化仏は常に三界に処す」と。外道大有経とは、測師は云う「吠世史迦外道、大有経中の説なり。彼は六句義を説く。一は実、二は

英語訳

[Page 36, Upper]
Practicing in upper patience is called sarvajña (the new translation says: reaching upper patience is called omniscience). Together observing the ultimate truth, severing the mind-habits and ignorance of the three realms to exhaustion, taking the characteristics as diamond, making exhausted-characteristics and no-characteristics into sarvajña, transcending conventional truth and ultimate truth, beyond these is the eleventh ground sarvajña-awakening. Neither existent nor non-existent, perfectly clear and pure, etc. (the new translation says: one characteristic and no-characteristic, equal and non-dual, is the eleventh omniscience ground. Neither existent nor non-existent, perfectly clear and pure). Diamond samādhi - Master Wŏnch'ŭk says: "Diamond has two meanings. First, the wisdom that can sever is called diamond because it can sever all afflictions. Second, the delusions to be severed are called diamond because they are as difficult to sever as diamond." Together observing the ultimate truth - Master Dōeki says: "Although illuminating principle is the same, because grades are divided into higher and lower, they observe together. Conventional truth and ultimate truth - illuminating this non-duality is provisionally called the third middle way ultimate truth. Therefore this middle way is no different from the previous meaning of equally illuminating the two truths. To distinguish from the two vehicles that eliminate the conventional and grasp the ultimate, therefore it is not the middle." I say: "If we follow Tiantai's intention, prajñā has three teachings. This interpretation corresponds to the shared teaching and does not accord with the distinct and perfect principles." Mind-habits and ignorance - the first fascicle says: "Previously, no-arising patience severed the accumulations of form-mind etc. of the three realms. Now it only refers to severing mind-accumulations, because mind is subtle." Master Wŏnch'ŭk says: "In the previous stages, the coarse habits of the two types - form and mind - were already severed. Now in this stage, the subtle habits of the two types - form and mind - are also severed. To show that what is severed is most subtle, it is only called mind-habits." Master Dōeki says: "These very habitual energies are also called ignorance, therefore they are combined." Master Wŏnch'ŭk adds the following phrase and quotes "ignorance exhausted-characteristics." I say: "The new translation says 'ignorance characteristics,' so although Master Wŏnch'ŭk's quoted text differs in wording, the meaning seems to be exhausted-characteristics." Taking as diamond, making exhausted-characteristics and no-characteristics into sarvajña - this passage is unclear and there are many different interpretations. Let me present one or two. The first fascicle says: "Diamond delusions are severed to exhaustion, yet wisdom and virtue are still

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characterized. Therefore it says exhausted-characteristics become diamond. The final mind of diamond is not merely the exhaustion of delusions. Wisdom and virtue are also the same - because the true characteristic is no-characteristic, it is called exhausted-characteristics and no-characteristics. This wishes to clarify that Buddha does not sever. Diamond is opposed to delusion; the antidote is still characterized. Because Buddha's essence merges with the ultimate, it receives the designation of no-characteristics. Therefore the text below says only Buddha alone can see principle." Master Dōeki says: "The characteristic of ignorance's extinction and exhaustion becomes dharma-cloud; when exhausted-characteristics also depart, it is called Buddha-fruit." Master Jizang says: "Exhausted-characteristics means ultimately able to destroy the causes and effects of birth-death. Exhausted-characteristics and no-characteristics means not merely exhausting characteristics but also exhausting no-characteristics - namely, conditioned observation together becomes hidden, and object-knowledge both become quiescent." Master Wŏnch'ŭk presents two interpretations. He explains: "At the time of the uninterrupted path, although delusion-characteristics are exhausted, there are still different characteristics of object and knowledge. Therefore it is not called no-characteristics. In this stage, ignorance-characteristics are exhausted and there are also no different characteristics of object and knowledge. Therefore it is called exhausted-characteristics and no-characteristics. Although there are two interpretations, for now we follow the latter explanation." I say: "The new version explains lower patience as severing ignorance-characteristics, and explains upper patience as all no-characteristics. Therefore we know exhausted-characteristics is the diamond mind, correctly severing the final grade of delusion-characteristics. At that time delusion and wisdom are in opposition and have not yet been given the name of no-characteristics. Exhausted-characteristics and no-characteristics is precisely the Buddha stage. Having exhausted all characteristics, there is only no-characteristics. The receiving and upholding chapter below takes only Buddha-fruit as the stage of seeing principle. The meaning lies in this." From transcending conventional truth to sentient beings' fundamental karma, Master Dōeki says: "Separately explaining the three bodies of Buddha-fruit. The text accordingly becomes three parts. First is the reward-body, next from 'perfectly clear' below is the dharma-body, later from 'unconditioned' below is the response-body." I say: "Explaining the three bodies - this principle is reasonable. However, establishing the three bodies differs among sutras. This sutra calls it 'transformation-dharma-body,' which differs slightly in name and meaning from dharma-reward-response. Students should know this." Transcending etc. - Master Jizang says: "Because of realizing the middle way one-reality truth, it is called going beyond the two truths. The ten grounds

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are learning-fruit. Buddha's eleventh ground is no-learning fruit. Cutting off characteristics, it is not existent. Complete in virtue, it is not non-existent." Master Wŏnch'ŭk says: "Transcending the three worthies, therefore transcending conventional truth. Transcending the ten grounds, therefore transcending ultimate truth. Transcending conventional truth, therefore non-existent. Transcending ultimate truth, therefore non-non-existent." Master Dōeki says: "What is severed becomes conventional truth, what is cultivated becomes ultimate truth. Realizing the non-duality of severing and attaining is transcendence. Also, provisional wisdom illuminating existence becomes conventional truth, true wisdom illuminating the ultimate becomes ultimate truth. The non-duality of the two illuminations is transcendence. Also, benefiting others becomes conventional truth, self-benefit becomes ultimate truth. Ultimately illuminating the non-duality of self and others is transcendence. Only awakening is neither existent nor non-existent." I say: "If following Tiantai, one should explain this passage through the three teachings and being gathered in. However, now provisionally following the new version: equal awakening still has ignorance-characteristics, therefore it can be called existent. Immediately severing that, therefore it can be called non-existent. Therefore the causal stage belongs to the two extremes. Buddha-fruit, having severed, is neither existent nor non-existent. Ignorance is precisely illumination; one characteristic being equal is transcending the two." Master Jizang's meaning is the same. Therefore explaining the above passage about severing mind-habits of the three realms, he says: "Observing the emptiness truth in the ultimate unobstructed path, severing mind-wisdom ignorance to exhaustion." This explanation is excellent. Sarvajña-awakening etc. - Master Wŏnch'ŭk quotes the sutra saying sarvajña-awakening. Master Dōeki uses the character "awakening" to head "neither existent nor non-existent" (worth considering). Sarvajña-awakening - Master Wŏnch'ŭk says: "There are two explanations. One says: sarvajña is called omniscience, sarvajña is called all-species wisdom. If following the basic record, all are translated as omniscience." Master Dōeki explains the passage below: "Sarvajña here means all-species wisdom." Observing this textual flow, it seems sarvajña explains original awakening nature while sarvajña explains initially awakened cultivated and perfected wisdom. However, I have not yet seen a correct translation and explanation. From unconditioned below, Master Dōeki says: "In this passage there is one section establishing the transformation essence."

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Second, from "good sons" below clarifies the realm of transformation. Third, from "all Buddhas' response-transformations" below clarifies the one who transforms. Fourth, distinguishing orthodox from heterodox. From "therefore I say" below shows the heterodox; from "Great King, I constantly" below describes the orthodox. "The afflictions of all sentient beings do not transcend the three-realm store; the fruition of all sentient beings, the twenty-two faculties, do not transcend the three realms" (the new translation says: all classes of sentient beings, all afflictions, karmic retribution-fruit, twenty-two faculties do not transcend the three realms). The first fascicle says: "This sutra does not yet explain matters outside the three realms. It is still a concealed-characteristic explanation. Also it says: when treatises speak of transformation birth-death existing outside the three realms, this treatise is not bound to the three existences, therefore called 'outside.' If discussing location, it does not transcend the domain of the three realms." Master Jizang says: "The three realms have two types: first is fragmentary, second is transformational." Master Wŏnch'ŭk presents different interpretations, saying: "Tripitaka Master Cien makes such an explanation. Transformational birth-death has no separate karmic fruit. It immediately depends on the karmic fruits possessed by the three realms. Through boundary-limit concentration, it becomes increasingly superior and marvelous, therefore called transformational." Master Dōeki says: "Delusions have coarse and subtle, retributions have pure and defiled. How could there separately be pure lands outside the three realms?" I say: "Different interpretations are like this, not according with the sutra's meaning. As detailed in the citation of the Awakening of Faith treatise below." "The response-transformation dharma-bodies of all Buddhas also do not transcend the three realms" (the new translation says: all Buddhas' guidance and instruction, response-transformation dharma-bodies also do not separate from this). Master Jizang says: "Speaking of the sentient beings to be transformed, therefore saying they do not transcend the three realms. If speaking truly, the three realms are originally pure. What transcending or not transcending is there?" Master Wŏnch'ŭk says: "Although Buddha's three bodies are not the three realms, they are also within the three realms, therefore saying they do not transcend." Master Dōeki says: "A good doctor does not dwell in places without illness and does not treat inevitably fatal diseases. Because of diseased places, therefore not transcending the three realms; because they can be liberated, and for the sake of expounding dharma, response-transformation Buddhas constantly dwell in the three realms." The non-Buddhist Great Existence Sutra - Master Wŏnch'ŭk says: "The Vaiśeṣika non-Buddhists' Great Existence Sutra explains this. They explain the six categories of meaning: first is substance, second is